La política retributiva de una empresa debe ser coherente con su estrategia general para cumplir funciones clave en la gestión de personas. Para que el salario actúe como un factor motivador, debe garantizar la equidad interna, asegurando que las remuneraciones sean justas entre los miembros de la organización y se asignen en función de las responsabilidades y competencias de cada puesto. Asimismo, debe mantener la competitividad externa, lo que implica adecuar los rangos salariales a la realidad del mercado laboral para atraer y retener el mejor talento.

La compensación total se define como la combinación de tres elementos fundamentales: retribución fija, variable y en especie. La retribución fija es la parte garantizada por la empresa, compuesta por el salario base y complementos, y se establece según la categoría del puesto. La retribución variable se determina por el cumplimiento de objetivos específicos y busca fomentar el compromiso e implicación del trabajador. Finalmente, la retribución en especie o beneficios sociales incluye compensaciones no monetarias, como seguros médicos o formación, que ofrecen ventajas tanto competitivas como fiscales.

La Valoración de Puestos de Trabajo (VPT) es la metodología técnica utilizada para agrupar los puestos de una empresa según su aportación real a los objetivos de la organización. Este proceso asigna un valor a las habilidades y responsabilidades requeridas para cada función, permitiendo clasificar los puestos en niveles de similar relevancia. Como consecuencia directa, la VPT facilita la creación de bandas salariales, que establecen rangos retributivos para cada categoría, asegurando así un sistema de pago objetivo y transparente.

The Present Continuous tense is formed using the auxiliary verb be (am, is, or are) combined with the -ing form of a main verb. Its primary purpose is to describe actions that are happening exactly at the time of speaking; for instance, if someone is in their car on the way to work, we say "they are driving" to indicate the action is currently in progress and not yet finished. However, this tense is also used for actions that are in the middle of happening but not necessarily occurring at the exact moment of speaking. An example of this is someone telling a friend they are "reading a really good book"; they may not be reading it at that second, but they have started it, haven't finished it, and are in the middle of the process.

Beyond immediate actions, the Present Continuous describes temporary situations occurring around the current time. You might use it with time expressions such as today, this week, or this year to highlight that a situation is not permanent. For example, telling a colleague "you’re working hard today" implies a specific effort for that day rather than a general habit. Similarly, it is the preferred tense when talking about changes or trends that have started to happen, often paired with verbs like getting, becoming, improving, starting, or increasing. A common application of this is asking, "Is your English getting better?" to describe a developing progress.

In addition to present-moment activities, this tense is frequently used to discuss the future, specifically for fixed arrangements. When you have already decided and organized to do something, such as meeting a friend or going to the cinema on Saturday, the Present Continuous conveys that the plan is set. Furthermore, there is a specialized use of this tense with the word always. While "I always do" refers to a regular habit, saying "I’m always doing" something means you do it too often or more often than is normal, frequently used to express a complaint, such as "I’m always losing my keys".

It is important to note that certain verbs, known as state verbs, are not normally used in the Present Continuous because they describe a state rather than an action. These include verbs of thinking and feeling like know, believe, understand, want, and prefer. Additionally, while we use the continuous form to describe how someone is behaving at a specific moment (e.g., "he is being selfish" means he is acting that way now), we use the Present Simple for permanent character traits (e.g., "he is selfish" in general). Finally, for the senses, the Present Simple is usually preferred for see, hear, smell, and taste, though both simple and continuous forms are acceptable for describing how someone looks or feels at the moment.

The Present Simple is primarily used to discuss things in general, encompassing truths that are universally accepted and actions that happen repeatedly or all the time. For example, one would say "the earth goes round the sun" to state a general truth or "nurses look after patients in hospitals" to describe a general fact. Structurally, the tense employs the base form of the verb for most subjects, but it requires the addition of -s or -es for the third person singular (he, she, or it). When forming questions or negative sentences, the auxiliary verbs do and does are necessary, such as in the phrases "Where do you come from?" or "Rice doesn’t grow in cold climates".

This tense is the standard choice for indicating how often an activity is performed, frequently appearing with frequency expressions like "every morning" or "usually". It is also specifically used for permanent situations—meaning things that continue for a long time—whereas the Present Continuous is reserved for temporary states. An illustration of this is saying "my parents live in London" because they have lived there all their lives. Furthermore, the Present Simple is used for certain speech acts where saying the words performs the action, such as when making a promise, suggestion, or apology.

Many verbs are not typically used in continuous forms because they describe a state rather than an action, meaning they are almost always expressed in the Present Simple. These include verbs of thinking and feeling such as know, like, believe, understand, remember, and prefer. Additionally, the Present Simple is the normal choice for verbs related to the senses, specifically see, hear, smell, and taste. While the Present Continuous can describe how someone is behaving at a specific moment, the Present Simple is used to describe a person's general character traits, such as saying "he is selfish" to mean he is that way generally.

In specific contexts, the Present Simple also carries a future meaning, primarily when referring to fixed timetables and programs. This is common for public transportation, cinema times, or scheduled meetings, such as saying "my train leaves at 11.30" or "the meeting is at nine o’clock tomorrow". It can also apply to personal plans if they are fixed like a timetable, such as "I start my new job on Monday," though the continuous form is more common for most other personal arrangements.

The Past Simple is the standard tense used in English to describe actions or situations that were completed in the past. For regular verbs, this form is typically created by adding the suffix -ed to the base form of the verb, such as worked, invited, or passed. It is important to note specific spelling rules for these regular forms; for example, verbs ending in a consonant and 'y' change the 'y' to 'i' before adding the ending, as seen in studied, while verbs ending in a single vowel and consonant often double that consonant, such as stopped. Contextually, this tense is often paired with finished time expressions like yesterday, last night, or specific historical years.

While many verbs follow the regular pattern, many of the most common verbs in English are irregular and do not end in -ed in the Past Simple. These irregular verbs must be learned individually because they change in unique ways; for instance, write becomes wrote, see becomes saw, and go becomes went. Some irregular verbs do not change their form at all from the infinitive to the past tense, such as shut or hit. The provided sources offer extensive lists of these variations, including verbs like buy (bought), catch (caught), and spend (spent).

To form questions and negative sentences in the Past Simple, the auxiliary verb did or didn't is used followed by the infinitive form of the main verb. This structure remains consistent regardless of whether the main verb is regular or irregular. For example, the positive statement "I enjoyed the party" becomes the question "Did you enjoy it?" and the negative "I didn't enjoy it". In cases where "do" is the main verb of the sentence, the auxiliary "did" is still required, resulting in phrases such as "What did you do?" or "I didn't do anything".

The verb to be (am/is/are) has its own unique past forms, was and were, and does not use the auxiliary did for questions or negatives. Was and wasn't are used for the subjects I, he, she, and it, while were and weren't are used for we, you, and they. For example, one would ask "Was the weather good?" or "Were they late?". Mastering the Past Simple is essential for clear communication, particularly when distinguishing between actions that happened at a specific finished time in the past and those that have a connection to the present.

The Past Continuous tense is constructed by using the past forms of the verb "be"—was or were—combined with the -ing form of the main verb. Structurally, "was" is used for the subjects I, he, she, and it, while "were" is applied to we, you, and they. The primary function of this tense is to describe an action that was already in the middle of happening at a specific time in the past. This means the action or situation had started before that time but had not yet finished. For example, if someone says, "This time last year I was living in Hong Kong," they mean they were in the midst of that residency during that specific period.

A key aspect of understanding this tense is comparing it to the Past Simple, which is used for completed actions. While the simple form indicates that an action was finished entirely, the continuous form indicates that the subject was in the middle of it. These two tenses are often used together to show that a shorter action, expressed in the past simple, happened in the middle of a longer action, expressed in the past continuous. For instance, in the sentence "Matt phoned while we were having dinner," the act of having dinner was already in progress when the phone call occurred.

However, the word order and meaning change significantly if the past simple is used for both actions. Saying "When Karen arrived, we had dinner" implies that Karen arrived first, and then the meal began. In contrast, saying "When Karen arrived, we were having dinner" indicates the meal had already started before her arrival. It is also important to remember that state verbs, such as know and want, are not normally used in continuous forms; for example, one would say "we knew each other well" rather than "we were knowing".

Finally, the Past Continuous is frequently used to describe a background scene or a situation that was ongoing when a specific event occurred. This is evident in sentences like "It was raining when I got up," where the rain is the continuous background state. It can also be used to show that someone did not notice an event because they were occupied with another activity, such as "I waved to Helen, but she wasn't looking". Mastering this distinction between ongoing processes and completed events is essential for clear storytelling in English.

The Present Perfect Simple is constructed using the auxiliary verbs have or has followed by the past participle of the main verb. While regular verbs form their past participle by adding the suffix -ed, a significant number of common English verbs are irregular and must be learned individually, such as lost, done, and written. The fundamental purpose of this tense is to establish a connection between the past and the present, typically indicating that a past action has a result in the current moment. An example of this is the sentence "Tom has lost his key," which informs the listener that Tom does not have the key right now.

This tense is frequently employed to deliver recent news or new information. When a speaker says, "The road is closed. There’s been an accident," they are describing a past event with immediate relevance to the present situation. In these contexts, the Present Perfect is often paired with the adverbs just, already, and yet. Just signifies a very short time ago, already is used to show that something happened sooner than expected, and yet is used in questions and negative sentences to show that the speaker is expecting something to happen.

Beyond immediate news, we use the Present Perfect Simple to talk about periods of time that continue from the past until now, encompassing time expressions like recently, so far, or since I arrived. It is specifically used with words like today, this week, or this year when these periods are not yet finished at the time of speaking. For instance, saying "I’ve drunk four cups of coffee today" is appropriate if the day is still ongoing. It is also the standard tense for the construction "It’s the first time something has happened," used when a person is experiencing a specific event for the first time in their life.

It is essential to distinguish the Present Perfect from the Past Simple, as the latter is used only for finished time in the past (like yesterday or last year), whereas the Present Perfect stays connected to the present. Additionally, certain verbs that describe a state rather than an action, such as know, are normally used in the simple form even when describing a duration. Finally, the choice between "gone to" and "been to" is a key distinction; "gone to" implies the person is still at the destination or on their way, while "been to" means they have visited and since returned home.

The Present Perfect Continuous is constructed using the auxiliary verbs have or has combined with been and the -ing form of the main verb. One of its primary theoretical uses is to describe an activity that has recently stopped or just stopped, particularly when that activity has a clear connection to the present. For example, if you encounter someone who is out of breath, you might ask, "Have you been running?", because the past activity of running is the reason for their current physical state. Similarly, you would say "It’s been raining" to explain why the ground is currently wet, even if the rain has already ceased.

Beyond activities that have ended, this tense is extensively used for actions that began in the past and are still happening. It is the most common structure used when asking or saying "how long" something has been occurring, and it is frequently paired with the prepositions "for" and "since". For instance, saying "How long have you been learning English?" implies that the person is still a student of the language. This tense can also be applied to repeated actions that have been happening over a long period, such as stating that a group of people has been going to the same cafe every morning for years.

When distinguishing this tense from others, it is helpful to compare it to the Present Continuous, which only describes what is happening exactly at the moment of speaking. While you would say "I am working" to describe your current activity, you use "I’ve been working hard" to describe the duration of the activity leading up to the present. Additionally, it is essential to note that state verbs—such as know, like, and believe—are not normally used in continuous forms; therefore, even when talking about a duration, you would use the Present Perfect Simple for these verbs instead. Finally, while the Present Perfect Simple focuses on a completed result or "how much" has been achieved, the continuous form prioritizes the activity itself, regardless of whether it has been finished.

The Past Perfect Simple is constructed by using the auxiliary verb had (or the short form 'd) followed by the past participle of the main verb. While regular verbs form their past participle by adding the suffix -ed, many common verbs are irregular and change their forms uniquely, such as written, lost, or gone. Theoretically, this tense serves as the "past of the past." It is used when a speaker is already talking about a specific point in the past and wants to refer to an action or situation that happened even earlier. For example, if Sarah arrived at a party at 11 o'clock, but Paul had already left at 10:30, we say "when Sarah arrived, Paul had gone home".

In the context of storytelling, the Past Perfect Simple provides the necessary background for events described in the Past Simple. While the Past Simple tells us about completed actions that occurred at a specific time, the Past Perfect explains what led up to that moment. This distinction is vital for chronological clarity; for instance, "When we got home last night, we found that somebody had broken into the flat" indicates the break-in happened before the arrival. If both actions are in the Past Simple, it implies they happened one after another, but using the Past Perfect clarifies that one was already finished. A clear illustration of this is the difference between saying "When Karen arrived, we had dinner" (meaning she arrived and then we ate) and "When Karen arrived, we had already had dinner" (meaning the meal was finished before her arrival).

Understanding this tense also involves comparing it to the Present Perfect Simple. While the Present Perfect connects a past event to the current moment, the Past Perfect connects an earlier past event to a later past moment. For example, if you say "I wasn't sure who she was; I had seen her before, but I couldn't remember where," you are linking two distinct points in the past. Furthermore, the Past Perfect Simple is the standard structure for expressing regrets about the past when used with the verb "wish", such as "I wish I had known you were in hospital". It is also used in constructions like "It was the first time something had happened," to describe an experience that was new at a specific time in the past, such as passengers being nervous because they hadn't flown before.

The Past Perfect Continuous tense is constructed using the auxiliary structure had been (often shortened to 'd been) followed by the -ing form of the main verb. Its primary theoretical purpose is to describe an action that was in progress for a period of time before another specific event or situation happened in the past. A classic example of this is the sentence, "We’d been playing tennis for about half an hour when it started to rain heavily," which shows that the activity began in the past and continued right up until the second past event. This tense is also commonly used to show the cause of a past result, such as explaining that someone was tired because they had been working hard all day.

Understanding this tense requires a comparison with other structures. While the Present Perfect Continuous describes an activity that has been happening before now, the Past Perfect Continuous describes an activity that was happening before another point in the past. For instance, if you were out of breath when you arrived at a meeting yesterday, you would say you had been running. Furthermore, it differs from the Past Continuous; the past continuous (was/were -ing) simply describes an action in progress at a specific moment, whereas the past perfect continuous emphasizes the duration or activity leading up to that moment. This is illustrated by the observation: "It wasn’t raining when we went out ... but it had been raining, so the ground was wet".

However, there are restrictions on when this tense can be used. Certain state verbs—which describe a state rather than an action—are not normally used in any continuous form, including the Past Perfect Continuous. These include verbs like know, want, and believe. In these cases, even when talking about a duration of time before a past event, the Past Perfect Simple is used instead. For example, one would say, "We were good friends; we had known each other for years," rather than "had been knowing". Likewise, one would say someone "had always had long hair" rather than using a continuous construction.

The Past Perfect Continuous tense is constructed using the auxiliary structure had been combined with the -ing form of a main verb. Theoretically, this tense is used to describe an action that was in progress for a period of time before another specific point or event occurred in the past. An example provided in the source is: "We’d been playing tennis for about half an hour when it started to rain heavily," which illustrates that the activity began in the past and continued right up until the second past event. This structure is also frequently used to show the cause of a past result, such as explaining that someone was tired because they had been working hard all day.

It is important to understand the distinction between this tense and the Past Continuous. While the Past Continuous (was/were -ing) simply describes an action that was happening at a specific moment, the Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes the duration or activity leading up to that moment. For instance, a speaker might observe that the ground was wet because it had been raining, even if it was no longer raining when they went out. However, certain state verbs—which describe a state rather than an action, such as know, want, and believe—are not normally used in any continuous form. In these instances, the Past Perfect Simple is used instead, even to describe a long duration of time, such as saying "we had known each other for years".

When discussing the future, the Present Continuous is specifically used for fixed arrangements where a person has already decided and organized to do something. This is the appropriate tense for plans often found in a diary, such as "Ben is meeting Kate on Friday" or "I’m going to the dentist on Tuesday morning". In these contexts, English speakers do not normally use will because the action has already been arranged. The Present Continuous can also describe an action about to happen immediately, particularly with verbs of movement like go, come, or leave.

Conversely, the Present Simple is used for the future when referring to fixed timetables or programs. This is common for public events and transportation, such as saying "my train leaves at 11.30" or "the film starts at 8.15". While personal arrangements usually require the continuous form, the simple form can be applied to people if their plans are as rigid as a timetable, such as "I start my new job on Monday". Comparing the two, one would ask "What time are you arriving?" for a personal arrangement, but "What time does the train arrive?" for a scheduled service.

The future structure "I am going to do something" is primarily used to express that a person has already decided to perform a specific action and intends to carry it out. Theoretically, this signifies an intention formed prior to the moment of speaking. For example, if a person realizes their shoes are dirty and says, "I'm going to clean them," they are stating a decision they have already made, even if they haven't yet organized the specific time or arranged it with anyone else. This contrasts with the use of "will," which is typically used for decisions made spontaneously at the time of speaking.

Another essential use of "going to" is to predict that something is certain to happen because the current situation makes the outcome clear. When there is evidence in the present that points toward a specific future event, "going to" is the preferred choice. A common illustration of this is observing heavy black clouds in the sky and stating, "It's going to rain". Similarly, if a speaker feels physically unwell, they might say, "I think I’m going to be sick," because their current physical state makes that future event seem certain. This differs from a general prediction based on opinion, which more often uses "will".

When comparing "going to" with the Present Continuous for the future, the distinction lies in the level of organization. The Present Continuous is used for fixed arrangements—plans that are already settled and often involve other people or specific times, such as meetings or appointments. While "going to" also deals with future plans, it focuses on the decision or intention to act, whereas the Present Continuous focuses on the arrangement itself. In many cases, the difference between the two is small and either form is acceptable for describing future plans.

Finally, the past form "was/were going to" is used to describe an intention that existed in the past but did not happen. This structure allows speakers to talk about what they planned or thought would occur before a change in circumstances. For instance, someone might say, "We were going to travel by train, but then we decided to drive instead," to show that the initial intention was not fulfilled. It can also describe a situation that was about to happen but was interrupted, such as being "just going to cross the road when somebody shouted ‘Stop!’".

The future auxiliary will (often shortened to 'll) is primarily used to announce a new decision made exactly at the moment of speaking. When a speaker says, "I'll do something," they are identifying a new idea rather than a previously settled plan. For instance, if you realize you left a door open, you would say, "I'll go and shut it". This differs from "going to," which is reserved for intentions or arrangements decided before the conversation took place. In spoken English, the negative form of "will" is typically won’t. While "will" can be used with all subjects, shall is generally restricted to "I" or "we" in formal future contexts or in questions like "Shall I...?" or "Shall we...?" to ask for suggestions or opinions.

Beyond making decisions, "will" is the standard form used for several interpersonal functions such as offering, promising, or agreeing to do something. For example, you might offer assistance by saying, "I'll help you with that bag," or make a promise by saying, "I won’t tell anyone what happened". Additionally, it can be used to describe a refusal when someone—or even an object—fails to act, such as saying "the car won't start". To ask someone to do something as a request, you can use the question form, "Will you please turn the music down?".

Finally, "will" is used for general predictions regarding what a speaker knows or believes will happen in the future. These predictions are often paired with phrases like "I think," "I probably," "I'm sure," or "I wonder," such as in the sentence, "I’m sure you’ll pass the exam". This use differs from "going to," which is preferred when the current situation provides clear evidence that something is certain to happen soon, like seeing black clouds and saying "it's going to rain". It is also important to note that after the word "hope," the present simple is normally used instead of "will," as in "I hope Kate passes her test". In some contexts, "will" can also describe a present certainty, such as saying "don’t phone her now, she’ll be busy"

The auxiliary verb will is primarily used to announce a new decision made at the exact moment of speaking, such as when someone realizes they left a door open and says, "I'll go and shut it". This use differs from "going to," which describes intentions or arrangements made before the conversation. Additionally, will is the standard choice for interpersonal functions like offering help, agreeing to a request, or making promises, such as saying "I'll pay you back on Friday". Conversely, the negative form won’t (will not) is used to indicate that someone or something refuses to perform an action, such as a person who won't listen to advice or a car that won't start.

Beyond immediate decisions, will is used to make general predictions about the future based on what a speaker knows or believes will happen. These predictions are often introduced by phrases like "I think," "I'm sure," or "I wonder". While will can be used with any subject, shall is typically reserved for formal contexts or questions involving "I" and "we" to ask for suggestions or opinions, such as "Shall we go?". It is also important to note that will can sometimes describe a present certainty, such as assuming someone is busy at this very moment.

The Future Continuous tense, formed as will be doing, is used to describe an action that will be in the middle of happening at a specific time in the future. For example, a person might say, "This time next week I’ll be on holiday. I’ll be lying on the beach," to indicate they will be in the midst of that activity at that future point. This tense is also utilized to discuss complete actions in the future, particularly those that are part of a planned program or routine, such as a news presenter stating, "Later in the programme, I’ll be talking to the Minister of Education". In this specific context, its meaning is very similar to "going to" or the simple "will".

The Future Perfect tense, expressed as will have done, describes an action that will be complete before a specific time in the future. Theoretically, it allows a speaker to look forward to a future point and then look back at an action that has finished by that time. An illustration of this is the sentence, "the film will already have started by the time we get to the cinema," which indicates that the start of the movie precedes the arrival. This structure is also useful for calculating the duration of a situation up to a future date, such as noting that a couple "will have been married for 25 years" by their next anniversary.

In the English language, can is the primary modal verb used to express ability, permission, or possibility. It is followed by the base form of the verb, and while the phrase (be) able to can often replace it, can is much more common in everyday usage. Because can only possesses present and past forms, speakers must use (be) able to for other constructions, such as the present perfect ("I haven’t been able to sleep") or future-oriented sentences where a different modal like might is already present.

When discussing the past, could is used to describe general ability or in conjunction with verbs of perception like see, hear, smell, and remember. However, a vital distinction exists when talking about specific situations: if a person succeeded in performing an action at a particular moment in the past, was/were able to or managed to should be used instead of could. For example, one would say someone "was able to escape" a fire rather than "could escape" it. Conversely, the negative form couldn’t is universal and can be used for both general and specific failures.

Beyond past ability, could serves to discuss present or future possibilities, often as a less certain alternative to can when making suggestions. It is also the required choice for unrealistic or imaginary actions, such as saying "I could sleep for a week". To speculate about a past possibility that did not actually happen, English uses the structure could have (done). Similarly, couldn't have (done) is used to indicate that an action would have been impossible regardless of the circumstances.

May and might are primarily used to indicate that something is possible in the present or future. Both are generally interchangeable when saying "perhaps" something is true, though their negative forms, may not and might not, indicate that something is "perhaps not" the case. To talk about a possibility in the past, speakers use may have (done) or might have (done). While could is similar to may and might in positive sentences, it differs significantly in the negative: couldn't expresses certainty that something is impossible, whereas might not expresses a lack of certainty.

There are specific contexts where might is preferred over may, particularly in hypothetical or unreal situations; for instance, if a condition is not met, one would say "I might work harder" rather than "may". Furthermore, the expression might (or may) as well is used to suggest an action because there is no better alternative available, such as walking when a bus is missed and the next one is far off. Both verbs can also be used in a continuous form (may/might be -ing) to discuss possible current activities or future plans.

Both must and have to are used to express that an action is necessary or that a person is obliged to do it. While these terms are often interchangeable, a subtle theoretical difference exists in their application. You can use either must or have to when giving your own opinion, such as when you are saying what you think is necessary or recommending that someone do something. However, have to is the preferred choice when discussing an obligation that is a fact rather than just a personal opinion, such as a requirement for a job. Conversely, must is the standard form used for written rules and formal instructions. Structurally, have to requires auxiliary verbs like do, does, or did for questions and negative sentences. Additionally, have got to is a common alternative that can be used instead of have to.

It is vital to recognize that mustn’t and don't have to carry completely different meanings. Saying you mustn’t do something is a prohibition, meaning "don't do it" because it is necessary not to do that action. In contrast, don't have to and needn’t indicate a lack of necessity. This means that while you are not required to do something, you still can if you want to. For example, if you needn’t tell a person a secret, it is simply not necessary for you to do so; however, if you mustn’t tell them, it means you are being told specifically not to let them know. When using needn’t, the word "to" is not used (e.g., needn’t do), whereas the full structure is don’t need to do.

When talking about necessity in the past, the modal verb must is not used; instead, speakers use had to. There is also a significant distinction between the structures needn’t have (done) and didn’t need to (do). If you say someone needn’t have done something, it means they actually did it, but it has since become clear that the action was not necessary. On the other hand, saying someone didn’t need to do something simply states that it was not necessary at the time, and it does not matter whether the person actually performed the action or not. For instance, someone might not have needed to get up early but did so anyway because it was a beautiful morning.

In the English language, the modal verb should is primarily used to give advice or express an opinion about what is the right or good thing to do in a specific situation. For example, one might suggest to a tired person that they should go to bed, or express a belief that the government should improve schools. It is often introduced by phrases like "I think," "I don't think," or "Do you think...?" to soften the advice or seek another person's viewpoint. Theoretically, should is distinct from stronger modals like "must" or "have to" because while it indicates a good course of action, it does not imply that there is no alternative.

The modal ought to serves as an equivalent to should and can be used interchangeably in most contexts to provide recommendations. A key grammatical distinction is that while should is followed directly by the base form of the verb, ought to requires the inclusion of the word "to," as in the question "Do you think I ought to apply for this job?". Likewise, the negative form is expressed as ought not to, such as when advising someone not to go to bed so late.

Beyond advice, should is used to describe situations that are not right or deviate from what is expected, such as observing that a person should be here by now if they are late. It also expresses the expectation that an event will likely occur, for instance, predicting that a hard-working student should pass an exam. To discuss the past, speakers use the structure should have (done) to indicate that an action was a good idea but did not happen, or shouldn't have (done) to regret an action that was performed but was not a good idea.

There are several advanced constructions involving should, such as its use after specific verbs like "insist," "demand," "recommend," "suggest," and "propose". It is also commonly found after certain adjectives like "strange," "odd," "funny," and "typical," as seen in the phrase "It’s strange that he should be late". Furthermore, the structure "if something should happen" allows a speaker to discuss a future possibility that they feel is particularly small or unlikely. Finally, a person may give advice by using the first-person construction "I should...", which functions as a way of saying "I would do this if I were you".

The first type of conditional involves real possibilities in the present or future, typically structured as "if I do...". In these sentences, the speaker uses the present simple in the if-part to describe a condition that they believe is possible, and the future form with "will" in the main part of the sentence to describe the result. For instance, if someone is choosing between travel methods, they might say, "If we take the bus, it will be cheaper," because taking the bus is a realistic option. It is important to note that even though the condition refers to the future, the present simple is used after if rather than will.

Type 2 conditionals are used to discuss imaginary or unlikely situations in the present or future. Theoretically, when a speaker does not expect something to happen, they use the structure "if I did..." (the past simple) in the conditional clause, although the meaning remains in the present or future rather than the past. For example, one might ask, "What would you do if you won a lot of money?" to signify that winning is not actually expected. In the result part of these sentences, "would" (often shortened to "'d") is used, though "could" or "might" are also possible to show a degree of ability or possibility. A specific rule for this type is that after if, one can use "were" instead of "was" for all subjects, such as in the advice "If I were you, I wouldn’t buy that coat".

The third type of conditional refers to imaginary situations in the past, representing things that did not actually happen. The structure for Type 3 is "if I had known..." (the past perfect) in the condition clause and "would have done" in the main clause. This allows speakers to speculate about how the past might have been different; for example, "If I’d known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you" implies the speaker did not know and therefore did not visit. Similar to Type 2, the result clause can also use "could have" or "might have" to indicate what would have been possible or perhaps happened if the condition had been met.

Beyond these three standard types, English grammar utilizes various words to set conditions, such as unless, as long as, and provided. "Unless" functions as "except if," meaning a situation will happen only if the condition is not met. "As long as" and "provided (that)" are used to state that something is true only on a specific condition. Like standard conditionals, when these expressions refer to the future, they are followed by a present tense rather than "will". This theoretical framework allows learners to navigate between realistic possibilities, hypothetical scenarios, and past regrets with structural precision.

The verb wish can be used to offer someone well-wishes, such as wishing someone luck or "all the best," but it is distinct from the word hope when discussing desires for things to happen. While it is correct to say "I wish you a pleasant stay," you must use hope for situations like "I hope you feel better soon" rather than wish. Its most common theoretical application is to express regret about a situation that is currently not the way a speaker wants it to be.

When using wish to talk about current regrets, speakers utilize the past tense (such as knew, lived, or was), even though the meaning refers to the present. For instance, saying "I wish I knew what to do" implies that the speaker does not know right now and regrets that fact. Similarly, you use this structure to imagine alternative realities, such as "Do you wish you lived near the sea?". In these constructions, it is grammatically acceptable to use "were" instead of "was" after the word wish for all subjects, such as in "I wish Anna were here".

To express regret about something that happened in the past, the structure changes to wish + had (past perfect). An example of this is "I wish I’d known about the party," which indicates the speaker did not know about it previously and is now sorry they missed it. Additionally, wish can be combined with could to express regret about an inability. "I wish I could stay longer" means the speaker is sorry they cannot stay, while "I wish I could have gone" expresses a regret that they were unable to attend a specific event in the past.

Another specific construction is "I wish something would happen," which is primarily used to express a desire for something to change or to make a complaint. This is common when a situation is annoying, such as saying "I wish somebody would answer the phone" or "I wish it would stop raining". It is also used to complain about repeated actions by others using "wouldn't," such as "I wish you wouldn’t keep interrupting me". However, this "would" structure is strictly for actions and changes; it is not used to describe how a person simply wants a state to be, where the simple past or "could" remains the correct choice.

The Passive Voice is used in English to shift the focus from the person or thing performing an action to the person or thing that experiences or receives the action. In an active sentence, the subject is the "doer" (e.g., "My grandfather built this house"), but in a passive sentence, the subject is the "receiver" (e.g., "This house was built by my grandfather"). This structure is particularly useful when the actor is unknown, unimportant, or when the speaker wants to emphasize the action itself rather than who performed it. If the speaker still wishes to mention who performed the action, they can do so by adding a phrase starting with the word "by" at the end of the sentence.

Structurally, the passive is formed using the appropriate tense of the auxiliary verb be followed by the past participle of the main verb. For the Present Simple, the forms are am/is/are + cleaned/seen/done (e.g., "Two hundred people are employed by the company"). For the Past Simple, the forms are was/were + the past participle (e.g., "We were woken up by a loud noise"). While many past participles end in -ed, many common verbs have irregular forms, such as built, stolen, or made, which must be used correctly in these passive constructions.

The passive can also be applied to more complex tense systems like the Perfect and Continuous tenses. The Present Perfect Passive uses have/has been + the past participle (e.g., "The room looks nice. It has been cleaned"), while the Past Perfect Passive uses had been (e.g., "The vegetables didn't taste good. They had been cooked too long"). For ongoing actions, the Present Continuous Passive is formed with am/is/are being + the past participle (e.g., "A new bridge is being built across the river"), and the Past Continuous Passive uses was/were being. Furthermore, the passive is used with infinitives (e.g., "Something must be done") and perfect infinitives (e.g., "The room should have been cleaned").

Advanced passive structures include sentences with verbs that take two objects, such as give, ask, offer, or pay. In these cases, it is more common to start the passive sentence with the person (e.g., "I was given this watch" rather than "This watch was given to me"). Another specialized use of the passive is the construction "I was born", which is almost always used in the past tense when referring to one's birth. Additionally, in informal spoken English, the verb "get" can sometimes replace "be" in passive sentences to describe things that happen, such as "nobody got hurt" or "I don't get invited to many parties," though "be" remains the standard form for all situations.

Finally, the passive is used in formal reporting and "causative" arrangements. Phrases like "it is said that..." or "he is said to..." are common in news reports to discuss general beliefs or allegations (e.g., "The strike is expected to end soon"). The term "supposed to" can be used similarly to report what people say, but it often describes what is intended or arranged, which may differ from reality (e.g., "The plan is supposed to be a secret"). Related to the passive is the causative "have something done" construction, used when you arrange for someone else to perform a service for you, such as saying "Lisa had the roof repaired" to indicate she hired a builder rather than fixing it herself.

Reported speech is used when a speaker wants to tell someone what another person said in the past. Unlike direct speech, which uses quotation marks to repeat a person’s exact words (e.g., Paul said, "I’m feeling ill"), reported speech describes the content of the statement (e.g., Paul said that he was feeling ill). When using this structure, the main verb of the sentence is usually in the past, such as said or told, and the word "that" is frequently used to introduce the reported statement, although it can be optionally left out for brevity.

Because the reporting happens after the original statement was made, the verbs within the reported clause generally change from the present to the past. This means that am or is becomes was, are becomes were, do or does becomes did, and have or has becomes had. Modal verbs also shift: will becomes would, and can becomes could. For example, if someone originally said "I’ve lost my phone," it would be reported as "She said that she had lost her phone". Actions originally in the past simple (like woke up or did) can either remain in the past simple or be transformed into the past perfect (had woken up or had done).

There are specific instances where changing the verb tense is not strictly necessary. If the situation being reported is still the same or remains true at the moment of reporting, a speaker can choose to keep the verb in the present. For instance, if Helen says "I want to go to Canada," and she still intends to go, one could report it as "Helen told me that she wants to go to Canada". however, if the situation has already finished or changed—or if the reported information is known to be false—the past tense must be used. An example of this requirement is when someone reports that a person was in the hospital, but then meets that person in the street; they would say, "Rachel said you were in hospital" because the current reality is different.

Choosing between the verbs say and tell depends on whether the listener is mentioned. You must use tell if you are specifying who the person was talking to, such as in "Rachel told me that you were ill". If the listener is not mentioned, say is the correct choice, as in "Rachel said that you were ill". Additionally, when reporting orders, requests, or advice, the structure "tell/ask somebody to do something" is used. For instance, "Don’t work too hard" becomes "I told Joe not to work too hard," and "Can you help me?" becomes "Jackie asked me to help her".

Reporting questions requires significant structural changes compared to reporting statements. In a reported question, the word order shifts so that the subject comes before the verb, just like in a normal statement, and the auxiliary verbs do, does, and did are removed. For example, "What time does the film start?" becomes "Do you know what time the film starts?". If the original question was a "yes/no" question without a question word like who or where, the words if or whether must be used to introduce the reported clause. When these questions are reported in the past, the verbs still follow the general rule of shifting back in time.